III. Historical and philosophical aspects of Quakerism
All people are equal before God.
Religion is about the whole of life.
"For Quakers; beliefs have to be tested by the way they are expressed in action - the whole of life is sacramental and can bring you into contact with God's love."84
"Quakers have experienced both Mystical as well as Common-Sense philosophy."85
George Fox (1624-1691) was the foremost early leader of the Quaker movement, and his ideas were seminal in the establishment of the Religious Society of Friends86 (Quakerism). His Journal, which was published first in 1694,87 set out the most important philosophical aspects of the Quaker faith. His central belief maintained that everyone has the capacity for personal contact with God. Inside all of us there is what was variously called an `Inward Life', `Inner Light', `Christ Within', `That of God in every man' and `The Seed of God' which can respond to `Divine Spirit', or God-given inspiration. Fox argued that we need to recognise and nourish this. Through its guidance, we are able to promote our religious life. The Inner Light is not only an individual thing but also arises from the life of the gathered meeting of the faithful. George Fox's belief that `an ability to turn to God' exists in everyone, became the essence of Quakerism and inspired its belief in peace and social justice. This belief in the Inner Light has its roots in the Gospel of John of the New Testament, in passages such as: "In Him [Christ] was life, and that life was the light of men."88 "The true light that gives light to every man was coming into the world."89 "I am [Christ] the light of the world. Whoever follows me will never walk in darkness, but will have the light of life."90 The Inner Light inspired conscience and encouraged a questioning mind. By turning to the Inner Light, everybody had the opportunity of perceiving the truth and therefore, choosing between good and evil. Throughout his extensive travels, not only in continental Europe but also among the American colonies, George Fox spoke out against the established church, maintaining that religion did not require rites sanctified by church canon and doctrine. He argued that since all humanity have the Inner Light, each individual through silent worship can be led to divine the workings of God: the Inner Light in each man and woman was the mainspring of faith and had connection to God. In categorical terms, Quakerism belongs to the Christian-Protestant faith; individual Friends believe to a greater or lesser extent in the doctrines of Christianity.
During the seventeenth century considerable numbers of the people of England sought religious spontaneity and attempted to re-invigorate the spiritual content of their Christian faith. Some of these warmly welcomed George Fox's ideas. Through them George Fox received support and backing for his view that established religions of the time were both restrictive and fettered. These followers came to accept that genuine spirituality or Christian living originated from the Inner Light, rather than creed or tenet of established churches. Hence, they devoted themselves to harmonious living guided by the Inner Light and rejected any need for a traditional clergy or ecclesiastic system. The Friends were adamant that they could have open fellowship with God without the need of the ordinances or priests and outward sacrament of Christian doctrine. They leaned on the inner testimony of the spirit more willingly than on the outer rule of canon law and observance.
Quakers see themselves as a "possessor of God", rather than a "professor of God". The latter is a phrase they believe an orthodox Christian would use to describe themselves. Perhaps Mahatma Gandhi's following analogy could be a suitable elaboration regarding the term "possessor of God" as opposed to "professor of God.": "I am convinced, I know, that God will ask, ask us now, not what we label ourselves but what we are, what we do."91 Compared with a conventional Christian, for Quakers the term Inward Light is seen as vital and comes from a wide range of religions, not necessarily only from Christianity. While Quakers understand and revere the Bible, they endeavour to reach behind the written word to the roots of its inspiration. Quakers frequently read the Bible, stressing the meaning of its lessons more willingly than the obligation of belief in scripture. They think that the Bible is not the last statement from God to humankind, but a segment of the on-going vision of the Godly Spirit.
The Quaker belief is based on reason and study of the Bible and other writings, but it does not rely on "reason". Large numbers of crimes have been committed under the cloak of "reason". Quakerism also does not attempt to define itself in creeds, and Quakers have refused any written creed. "There is not, and never can be, an official Quaker spokesman."92 Its tendency for silent meetings undeniably led to the lack of logicality in defining Quakerism. However, this lack of logic could help its growth and development by continually seeking a fresh revelation of the Supreme Being or the Inner Light of Christ. Fixed logic and definition can bring about fixed conceptions or an immovable frame of mind, hence can become an obstruction in understanding changing perceptions of Truth.
Quakers stressed the virtues of simplicity, seeing themselves as humble workers. Similarly, they encouraged a sense of equality by avoiding hierarchical ｅxpressions such as titles, "your grace", "your highness", "sir", "Mr"., "Mrs"., "your majesty", "your obedient servant", "the reverend", and so on. Unpretentious language, using the informal "thee" instead of the more respectful "you" was used to protest against and oppose the rigidities and extravagances common to 17th century English society.93 Plain speech, plain clothes and simplicity of life expressed the fact that Quakers believed in equality before God between different classes. George Fox and his followers refused to bow to earthly authority. For example, polite society of the day dictated the removal of hats before those in authority. Consequently, Fox and his followers' beliefs were regarded as "blasphemous" by both the secular authorities and by the conventional religious institutions. Both spoke out against Fox and his followers, and attempted to silence them through oppression. The epitome of this oppression was the Quaker Act of 1662. It called for the imprisonment and fining of all those known to be members of the Society of Friends.
One of the main elements in understanding Quakerism is its concept of totality; all things are interrelated, nothing is separate from the total realm, sacred is secular, secular is sacred. Society as a whole, has a shared responsibility for any single evil. Whenever the Friends make a decision in a Business Meeting, they always follow the principle of unanimity. This principle stems from the concern with the totality. The Friends do not ignore even the smallest groups' disagreement, firmly believing that the truth can often be found from minority groups rather than the more powerful majority groups. In order to reach decisions the Friends have, on occasion, to wait more than a century. This was true in relation to the anti-slavery issue in the USA.
Some modern Quakers94 aspire to quietism. They emphasize the stillness of mind needed to receive God's message. With the minimum of self-love, one can feel the maximum of God's love. For the personal ego is deeply interrelated with the nature of God, it is not a self-centred ego. Thus, when Quakers pray, meditate or worship God, they practise silence and simplicity rather than rhetoric. Quakers meet to worship God and wait for his voice in silence. Prayer is communication between God and the individual, but in the gathered group, Quakers feel God is speaking to them and through them. In this light, God appears not through established churches, holy communion, and external models, but uninterruptedly, from one's own viewpoint as well as through the voices of the gathered meeting. Quakers are open and accessible to all those who desire to meet with them. This openness is fundamental to Quaker belief and life.
Because Quakers make no distinction between the City of God and the Secular City, and see no difference between religious matters and secular matters, they are heavily involved in secular issues, but see them in spiritual terms. The Quakers testimonies are based on respect and look for the Inner Light in others: prisoners, who may need care; business colleagues; the workers, who should have fair wages and conditions. Quakers thus took an active role in founding the American states. William Penn (1644-1718) was a remarkable figure who embraced Quakerism and finally attempted to found a Christian state. The state of Pennsylvania (that is Penn's wood-land) was established in 1682: It was within this state that he and other Friends concentrated on their `holy experiment'; a Quaker ideal of a peaceful state in which different races could live together in harmony, most notably with the American Indians. This was very unusual at the time. The activities of Quakers within Pennsylvania can be seen as the origins of an anti-racial movement and an early example of humanity in politics.
Friends also came to oppose slavery and were heavily involved in efforts to abolish it. English Quakers were vigorous in their battle to end the slave trade. George Fox wrote and spoke out against slavery following his visit to North America.95 Likewise, the American Quakers, influenced by John Woolman (1720-1772) and others, voluntarily liberated all their slaves between 1758 and 1800.96 The abolition of slavery proposal was first suggested in 1700, but did not gain unanimous support among the American Friends until 1776. At that point the Friends made a decision maintaining that those who owned slaves, would not qualify as members of the Society of Friends. Subsequently, in Rhode Island Stephen Hopkins, governor for nine terms, was disowned because he would not emancipate his personal slaves.97 Quaker Meetings, though slow to adopt this action, eventually came to carry it out with conviction.
Since their inception, Quakers granted women equality in worship, public speaking, education and business affairs. Any woman Friend may now take as much of an active role in Quaker meetings as her male counterpart, all individuals are considered of equal importance in the sight of God. Consequently, the equality of women within Quaker meetings gave them the opportunity to increase their ability for leadership. These women Friends began to stand up as leading figures within society in general. Quaker women took on active and innovative roles throughout the period of the 19th century. Several examples can be cited. In 1813 Elizabeth Fry was a dynamic leader in the prison reform movement.98 Dorothea Dix worked unceasingly to obtain improved conditions and better treatment for the patients of lunatic asylums. Susan B. Anthony was an advocate in establishing female franchise. Mary Fisher and Dorothy Waugh were prominent female orators, despite coming from working class backgrounds.
Through the concentration on the search for truth, Quakers contributed to the development of science and attempted to explore the links between science and religion. Through science the human race can be seen as humble as well as sublime. Several remarkable Quaker scholars were produced: for example, the astronomer Arthur Eddington, the geneticist Francis Galton, the chemist John Dalton, the inventor of antisepsis Joseph Lister, and the anthropologist E.B. Tylor. Between 1851 and 1900 English Quakers were 50 times more likely to be chosen as Fellows of the Royal Society, as non Quakers.99
Frequently Quakers' belief in the Inner Light is manifested as care for the suffering of others. From the time of the American War of Independence, Friends have been eager to take care of refugees and casualties. By the 19th century, Friends' concern for the oppressed became international. What is more, during, and particularly after the First World War, Quakers made a considerable contribution to relief work not only in Britain, but also in France and Germany. By the eve of the Great Depression in the USA, the American Quakers directed the feeding of children of unemployed miners, as did the British Quakers. They also showed particular concern for the difficulty of young people, together with Blacks, Indians, and migrant workers in the USA.
Generally Quakers are well known for their pacifist beliefs and their objection to war, yet those beliefs are not absolute and can be flexible. In reality, it depends very much on each Friend's discernment of the Inward Light or inner belief as to the action they take. Examples of this can be seen during the American War of Independence when several American Quakers put patriotism before pacifism. In the same way, during the American Civil War, a large number of Quakers considered the abolition of slavery to be more important than the "evils" of armed conflict.100 In the First and Second World Wars, and later, the objection to obligatory military service was left to each Friend's personal conscience. Although Quaker Meetings supported members whose conscience led them to oppose conscription they did not require them to do so. Quakers brought the same fundamental objections to war as they did to poverty, ignorance, and the neglect of social justice. It is undeniable that the Quakers have found it just as difficult as any other group of idealists to reconcile ideals with the demands from society and exigencies of politics. Yet by and large, Quakers have been un-deviating in translating their ideals into practice. And efforts toward removing the causes of social conflict are seen as important and formed a crucial element of the Quaker activity.
Due to their humanitarian contributions, the British Friends Service Council and the American Friends Service Committee were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1947. Throughout the post-war period, Quakers assisted in a programme of aid, relief and reconstruction. In particular, British, American and other Quakers did extensive aid work during and after the Korean War of 1950-1953; some 20,000 refugees were cared for in camps in the port city of Kunsan. They attempted to resettle, train for employment, run a provincial hospital and provide material assistance.101
In conclusion the philosophy of Quakers has tended to be non-dogmatic. Their disregard for theology inspired accusations of "heresy". While Quakers had a mystical belief in the value of the Inward Light and the fact that "all life is sacramental", they also participated in social activities as an ｅxpression of their belief. Quakers were deeply concerned with both the practical as well as the mystical, with social reality and with God, with the particular era and with eternity, with oneness and with variety, with minimal formality and unlimited life. These attempts can be seen as a search for the historical Christ together with Inward Divinity, both of which are inseparable and interrelated one with another. "There is a connection between the silent Meeting and the pursuit of truth in the outer world, accompanied by regard for the welfare of mankind."102
84. From Anthea Lee's private memorandum.
85. Sok Hon Ham. Malssum/Quaker Sampaeknyon [The Messages & Friends for 300 Years; The History of Quakers], (Seoul: Hankilsa, 1988), p.49.
86. Early Quakers called themselves Friends of the Truth.
87. "George Fox", Encyclopedia Americana. vol.11, (New York: American Corporation, 1974), p.678.
88. The Gospel of John 1:4.
89. Ibid., 1:9.
90. Ibid., 8:12.
91. Ambedkar B.R. Gandhi and Gandhism, (Punjab, 1970), p.180.
92. George H. Gorman. Introducing Quakers, (London: Quaker Home Service, 1981), p.7.
93. "Friends", Encyclopedia Americana. vol.12, (New York: American Corporation, 1974), p.93.
94. In 1985 figures show there were approximately, 228,000 Friends throughout the world: North America 117,000; Africa 42,000; South and Central America 25,000; Europe 21,000; Britain 18,000; Asia and Oceania 5,000 (including 10 Koreans). This statistic is from, Geoffrey Hubbard. Quaker By Convincement, (London: Penguin Books, 1985), p.176.
95. "George Fox", Encyclopedia Americana. vol.11, (New York: American Corporation, 1974), p.678.
96. See, Some Stories About John Woolman, (London: Quaker Home Service, 1980).
97. "Friends", New Encyclopedia Britannica. vol.26, 15th ed., (Chicago, 1985), p.255.
98. Howard Brinton. from Sok Hon Ham's Malssum/Quaker Sampaeknyon [The Messages & Friends for 300 Years; The History of Quakers], (Seoul: Hankilsa, 1988), p.275.
99. Ibid., p.262. and "Friends", New Encyclopedia Britannica. vol.26, 15th ed., (Chicago: 1985), p.256.
100. See, the American film, Friendly Persuasion. This film dealt with the conflict of the American Quakers and the issues of the abolition of slavery along with the armed conflict.
101. Yoon-Gu Lee. "Quakers in Korea", Friends Journal, (Pennsylvania: American Friends Service Committee, February 1, 1984), p.9.
102. Mary Ingle Wright. "What is a Quaker Meeting?", Friends Quarterly, (London: 1967 July), p.560.
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